How can we acquire knowledge? What are the different ways?
Here, I shall talk about what ancient India came up with. Pramaanam (प्रमाण) is a way of acquiring knowledge. Different darshanas (ways of perceiving the truth) accept different Pramaanams.
1. Pratyaksha (प्रत्यक्ष) Pramaanam: Perception. What I can perceive exists. The Charvaka Darshana (atheism) accepts only Pratyaksha as a valid means of knowledge. I cannot perceive the divine; therefore divinity doesn't exist.
2. Anumaana (अनुमान) Pramaanam: Inference. Eg: If I see smoke, I can infer that there's a fire. The Vaiseshika Darshana accepts Pratyaksha & Anumaana Pramaanam. It is fundamentally a study of the material world, relying on direct perception & inference.
3. Shabdha (शब्द) Pramaanam: Shabdha means Word. The word of a trusted source can be trusted. Eg: I've never seen the North Pole. But trusted sources tell me that it exists. Therefore, it must exist. Samkya Darshana & Yoga Darshana accept Pratyaksha, Anumaana & Shabdha Pramaanam. Experienced meditators have had spiritual experiences, whose word can be trusted. There is Prakriti, that which is material. If you remove all that is material, including your own mind which is material in nature, only Purusha (non-material) remains. Yoga will still your mind and help you experience Purusha in a state of Samadhi. The Samkya/Yoga derived Buddhism also accepts Pratyaksha, Anumaana & Shabdha pramaanam. Trusting an untrustworthy source is dangerous, though.
4. Upamaana (उपमान) Pramaanam: Comparison or Analogy. If you are describing something new to someone who has never perceived it, say a new creature, you will compare it will something that the user knows about to give him an idea. Nyaya Darshana accepts Pratykasha, Anumaana, Shabdha & Upamaana Pramaanam. Nyaya is a system of logic. For a non-truth seeker, this is a problematic Pramaanam to employ in debates.
5. Arthaapatthi (अर्थापत्ति) Pramaanam: Inference from circumstances. If I tell you: Devadatta is obese & Devadatta doesn't eat in the day, what can you infer? Devadatta must eat in the night. The (Purva) Mimaamsa Darshana accepts Arthaapatthi, in addition to Pratyaksha, Anumaana, Shabdha & Upamaana Pramaanam. Mimaamsa means critical investigation. It encourages leading a normal life with good thoughts & actions.
6. Anupalabdi (अनुपलब्धि)/Abhava (अभाव) Pramaanam: Non-existence. I search for my keys in my pocket. My pockets are empty, but there are no keys. Hence, the keys are not in my pocket, they have to be somewhere else. Uttara-Mimaamsa/Vedanta & the Kumarila Bhatta sub-school of (Purva) Mimamsa accept Anupalabdi Pramaanam in addition to Pratyaksha, Anumaana, Shabdha, Upamaana & Arthaapatthi Pramaanam. This talks about multiple ways to the truth, using Karma (action), Jnana (wisdom/meditation) & Bhakthi (devotion).
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